Digital Media Online Community and Offline Community

Question: Explain the properties of an online community and how it differs from an offline community. What features of popular sites contribute to community building and what prevents community building. Describe an analyse three social sites (NOT including Google, Twitter or Facebook) and explain whether any of them has the potential to be as big as the three largest. Answer: The group of the people with some of the common interests use the internet through surfing the emails, websites, instant messaging etc so that it becomes easy to do the work together, to do the communication and also to pursue their same interest over the time. Now days in business or social environment the online communities have that much control to create the long lasting and also the creative relationship over a long distance. Online communities have now become one of the bigger part of the people lives. If anybody wants to become the member of the online communities it is needed to become the member of any of the community through the any of the specific sites via internet. Due to the much availability of the online community the sending of any documents via emails and also to contact with many other people over a long distance becomes very easier. Some of the properties of the online communities are listed below: 1. An online community gives the possibility to connect and also engage the many number of customers and the people in the communities due to this involvement of much number of people it becomes very easy to solve any problem and also to get the views and the ideas of the different people in the different perspective. The engagement of the much people give the diversification in the ideas which will helps more in solving the problem in a more accurate way.2. Through the online community it becomes very easy to do any of the marketing campaign. Because now days most of the people are available in the online communities so to do the advertisement of any of the products so that it can improve the sales of that product to a much extent the online community is the best platform.3. To increase the sales of the many of the online sites the online community becomes the great place due to the presence of the web sales, different channels and also have the presence of the many sites.4. The onl ine community also helps to improve the customer satisfaction because it improves the customer self service and also the improvement of the association of customer service by decreasing the numbers of the support calls. The online community also becomes one of the great platforms to sharing the knowledge with everyone Capes, J. (2014).5. The network of the online community is based on cultural as well as based on technological. It is also become the kind of the guidance and the best kind of the guide is the invested to the community, learns from it and also get up to date with the technology on the basis of the evolution. As for examples here it considers about the three online communities that are Google+, flicker and the instagram. Google+ is the one of the social networking site in which the people can create the profile through which it gets the possibility of doing the chat with the different people like face book. The accounts which are needs to make to do the chat is become publically visible to the every one of the Google+ through which everyone can easily check the updates. Google+ is belongs to the Google Inc. By using this it becomes very easy to do the chat and also to keep the contact with the different people in a long distance. Flicker is the another sites of the social networking which also gives the great possibility for sharing the different videos, photos etc. Due to this it is also known as video hosting and the image hosting websites. The other best facility of the flicker is that to views and comments of the photos and the videos the people dont need to open the account on the flicker. But if there is the need to do the uploading of the photos and the videos there is the need to do the registering and also to open the account in the flicker Venzin, M. (2015). The instagram is also becomes one of the great platform for photo-sharing, video-sharing in the mobile. It also becomes one of the networking site which gives the facility of the social networking through which they can easily share the photos, videos etc. One of the important features of the instagram is that it reshapes the photos in very good shapes and structures and also there is the availability of the many of different features available for the photo editing. The people who are very keen of the photography for them instagram is one of the good platform. Instagram also give the possibility to share the as much photos and the videos with everybody and also gives the facility to see and comment on the others photos and videos. The field which is directed to do the communication and also to do the formation of the interactive community where the numbers of the people gather to discuss about the single purposes and also to get along with the different people is known as community building. To build the community with the greater extent it needs to arrange the various cultural programs and also the interactive games in which all the community people can take part so that it becomes free to communicate with the other peoples of the community. In offline community also people can arrange to build the community but it is little bit different form the community building of the online communication. In the offline community to build the community people can arrange the picnic, get together so that all the people of the community can get in a same place for some times and also discuss about the various matter which can increase the communication and the interaction of all the people among the community. To do the c omparison of both the online and the offline community it deduces that the amounts of the offline community are decreasing in number in the todays busy life because all the people are getting more busy in their life in that much of extent that to attend the cultural program and the other things are become very impossible in the daily life of the people Chen, X. (2013. So to balance both their daily work of the life and also the interaction in the community the use of the online community is increased in number. The building of the community in the online community is less time consuming from the offline community. With the help of the online community if the people only open the account in any of the particular online site, also do the regular surfing of that site by regular visiting of that site and also do the interaction with the various different people which helps the people to built the casual type of the relationship throughout the different people of the different parts of t he world depends on the virtual media. In the online community people can do the chatting with the unknown people of the world which helps the people to do the friendship. There are some of the similarities between both the online and the offline communities which are given bellow: Education: In the online communities it is not needed to get outside to acquire the idea about the any of the topics. The members of the online communities help the other to teach and learn in between the conversation with all the expertise through the online media. On the other hand, in the offline communities people do share their views and ideas and also give the advice in respect of the topics in anywhere in the place. Help: Help or assist of the online communities is mainly based on the online media. Through the online media it helps the people by giving some of the ideas and the tips which is relevant about the matters so that it becomes easy to get the better understanding about the matters. As in the offline community the type so the help or the assist is simply bit different from the online community because in the offline community both the virtual and the real type of assistance is also possible. Conversation: The common thing of both the online and the offline communities is the conversation. The matters of both the online and the offline communities are discussed on the elaborate basis. In this the matters of the common topic and also the common interest matters are discussed. Both the online and the offline communities are the good platform for the conversation, interaction and also to cultivate the relationship. Entertainment: It is also one of the common things of both the online and the offline communities. The entertainment of the online communities is mainly based on the virtual or the online participation of the different puzzles, quiz, games and also the many other things. On the other side in the offline communities the entertainment is the basis of the active participation of the cultural program, get together, picnic, cultural events, etc. Di Dio, D. (2011) Sharing: Sharing is the main basis of both the online and the offline communities. But the sharing process is different in both the communities. In the online community the process of sharing is that only to provide the tips, answers and the advice in regarding the matters which will become helpful to get the better understanding about the related topic. In the offline community the people of the communities share their ideas and the values by doing the face to face interaction. Common Goal: In the offline communities, working on the common goal is the one of the social events and also have to do any of the service of the social events but in the online communities to do any work on the basis of common goal is to like by giving the virtual education etc through which the social service is done. Through the online and the offline communities people gets more extroverts through which people can get free to ask and also discuss about the problems and also provide the ideas regarding the problem Bovier, F. and Mey, A. (2012). There are some of the dissimilarities which are present in both the online and the offline communities which are listed below: Physical communication: Physical communication plays one of the vital roles in both the online and the offline communities. In the online communities the possibility of the physical interaction and the visibility of the facial expression is not possible but in the offline communities there is mostly the availability of the face to face interaction and the communication of both the conscious and the unconscious physical contact and the responses. Types of communication: In the online community the basis of the communication is mainly text-based but in the offline community the process of the communication with the people is mainly on the face to face communication. In the online communication the communication is on the basis of the sending of the recorded messages, voice with the help of the internet media, the multimedia techniques and also by delivering the different types of the graphics Sastre, E. (2010). The communication of the online community is less time consuming than the offline community. In the above discussed study the online communities becomes most popular in the daily life. Now days the people gets busier and also gets more self- concerned in their own life so that there is no possibility for doing the offline communication so to keep the interaction with people they form the communities with the help of the online media because the most numbers of the people use the internet media to the communication in their daily basis. They also needs to visit many of the social sites to gather the knowledge and also discuss about the things in their own perspective which helps the all the people to gather the much knowledge of the matters which helps the people to more enhance their skills with the enough knowledge. To get the facility of the above online communities like Google+, flicker, and instagram there is the requirement of the smart phones because all these of the facility a re available in the smart phones unlike face book, Google and twitter because these three is get available if there is the possibility of the internet connection. So to acquire the potentiality to become the big platform like these three largest one of the things they have to do is that they need to make their software in such a way they it can be available in phones except smart phones, laptops, computers and also the others electronic devices. By describing the above study it gets to know that in face book there are some of the extra facility which are much more different from all the social networking media because face book gives all the facility of doing chatt, uploading status, browsing the profile of the different people and from this browsing it becomes easy to get the ideas about their likes, dislikes and the interest of the people and also get the basic idea about the people. In face book and twitter there is the requirement to get signed in to get the messages but in flic ker there is no requirement to get signed or to do the register because through it anybody can view the photos and the videos only by opening the flicker Jendrian, K. (2014). So to concluding this it is noticed that both the online and the offline community of the communication have their own points to consider. In online community it is become easier to get into the social life, easy method to get in touch with the old friends where there is no possibility to remain in with each other. For example without meeting each other in a certain place they can discuss and gossip about something by having conferencing with each other of all the members which can save time and effort. There are many people to get mingle who belongs to the different race, religion etc which will help to get socialize with the thousands of people of different background and also from the different places of the world which is not get possible outside the virtual world. Online community also has the cons side to consider which is not possible to identify the theft and the fraud where someone pretending to be someone by making the fake profile. By offline community there is no possibil ity of the doing fraud because in offline community the meeting of the people occurs with the face to face interaction. So there is the no possibility of threats and fraud. In the offline community people also can arrange the session of games, picnics etc to improve the interaction and the connection of the people. Coming to the cons side of the offline community it is time consuming and it is not possible to get mingle with the friends who are at the different places of the world because there is no possibility to get the people of the different places to get in one place Chen, G., Yang, S. and Tang, S. (2013). References Chen, G., Yang, S. and Tang, S. (2013). Sense of virtual community and knowledge contribution in a P3 virtual community. Internet Research, 23(1), pp.4-26. Chen, X. (2013). Study on Cooperator Recommendation of Virtual Collaborative Community. Journal of Software, 8(11). Di Dio, D. (2011). The Placemaker's Guide to Building Community. Community Development Journal, 47(1), pp.159-161. Jendrian, K. (2014). Sicheres Instant Messaging. Datenschutz Datensich, 38(5), pp.301-304. Sanchez-Machin, I., Guedes, P., Perez, R. and Matheu, V. (2015). Experience in the Use of Social Media (whatsapp, e-Mail, facebook, website) By Patients. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 135(2), p.AB135. Sastre, E. (2010). The Hike. JAMA, 304(2), p.134.  , (2013). An Exploratory Study on Consumerism in the Virtual Community. journalofconsumptionculture, 16(3), pp.119-145. Bovier, F. and Mey, A. (2012). Paracinma, Flicker et 3D: entretien avec Ken Jacobs. decadrages, (21-22), pp.124-130. Capes, J. (2014). The Flicker of Freedom: A Reply to Stump. The Journal of Ethics, 18(4), pp.427-435. Champion, C. (2012). Instagram: je-suis-l?. Philosophy of Photography, 3(1), pp.83-88. Venzin, M. (2015). Use Instagram to Boost Awareness. Nonprofit Communications Report, 13(3), pp.1-1.

Introducing Beloved Essay Topics

Introducing Beloved Essay Topics Top Choices of Beloved Essay Topics Analyze the novel Beloved in regard to the Emancipation Proclamation. This novel isn't about humility, and tells about an incredible urge to dwell in freedom. Explain the term rememory in respect to the novel Beloved. Explain the significance of the novel Beloved. Most Noticeable Beloved Essay Topics The impacts of stress on an individual's life can be calamitous. In the event the child it's not possible specific event until about 1920, progress was steady but in the previous 45 decades, the procedure for applying of science to the requirements of living. Only then a future could be found. There's a challenge in handling things that need to deal with writing for lots of individuals, but not with us. Till today, the nation is still experiencing the effect of the war. If as you are preparing a report you just analyze specific literature, the essay demands a great penetration into the issue. For some of them you will require help, while others you are able to write by yourself. The political problems are among the more important challenges in Nigeria. Explain how this character is observed from the view of different characters. Theeffects on such characters weren't just physical but psychological too. The characters are incredibly intricate. For instance, every time a new character is introduced, you're brought back in the memory of some other character, to recognize the new comers relationship to the story. It is essential to protect against the kids from the dust in the home. As an instance, the very first sentence in each one of the parts begins with a note of the condition of the home. Clear flammables from all over the home. Framed family photos from all over the house. Unfortunately, picking a name isn't so easy. Strongly tied to the topic of race is the subject of the past. Analyze the key symbols in Beloved. On looking from the tomb in place of into it. It takes only 5 minutes to read a review and discover out whatever you have to know about that business. This is the very first portion of the review, containing critical information for virtually any student. The review is going to teach you all you want to understand and then it is possible to place your purchase confidently. Our reviews contain details like the score of the clients, our rating, starting prices, Discounts, and grade of the papers. In addition, we offer discounts you will fall for. Even should you want an assignment completed in a few of hours, some businesses can offer the best services at affordable rates essay writing Australia. Irrespective of how the civil war of Nigeria has ended, there continue to be internal political wars happening in the nation. In their minds, authoritarianism is the sole means of survival within this grim dark future. Therefore, it should be said that the outcomes of this loneliness might be noticed in Sethe, who's jealous of her own kids or Paul D, who doesn't love anything an excessive amount. However, these are not all the outcomes of slavery. Beloved Essay Topics: No Longer a Mystery But the reality is that everybody is not going to be the president or governor of Nigeria. You must be proficient in the topic, have an overall idea about the chosen issue and figure out how to get the best arguments to demonstrate your thesis. His Images of the Secret Self, a group of por traits made from trick-or-treaters, is a favorite feature on the site. Find certain references in the text to back up your opinion. If you've chosen to employ Assignment Writing Services from our website then do not hesitate. Luckily, you have our top-class group of writers who can assist students and teach them how to decide on the most suitable essay direction. Students might have to look back to the text to find proof to support their most critical ideas. Start researching, and get started writing!

Research Methods and Research Models - College Students Topics For Research Paper

Research Methods and Research Models - College Students' Topics For Research PaperHigh school students have plenty of topics for research paper options available to them. Topics can be taken from a wide variety of fields and this gives students plenty of options to think about when preparing their own research papers.In general, the topics for research paper can be split into two parts: research methods and research models. Research methods include methods used by scientists in the field, such as field studies, laboratory experiments, statistics, etc. In addition, research models are used in experimental design and research methodologies.An experiment is the research method most often used in a given experiment. The study design includes the number of subjects and the size of the groups involved, the duration of the experiment, etc.Some areas of research use model organisms, which are used as models in science fairs and other science competitions. Other topics for research paper may focus on new methods of food production, etc.Topics for research method also include ethics in an experimental environment. Ethics is generally used in areas of medical research, although it may also be used in areas of medical testing. Topics may include children's safety in settings that may involve contact with rats, mice, mice ticks, monkeys, etc.Another topic for research method can be the methods used in actual experiments. Although many students and scientists are not familiar with the different types of models or experiments used in an experiment, it is important to mention the common methods when writing your research paper. To illustrate the common types of experiments and models, examples of experiment designs may be food composition, water chemistry, etc.For those who want to focus on another area of research, they may choose a topic for research method or else they may choose one of the more popular topics. The choice depends on the specific topic that is chosen.

USC College Essay Prompts and Essay Questions

USC College Essay Prompts and Essay QuestionsUSC, one of the best colleges in the United States, offers a variety of essay prompts and essay questions to help students prepare for the SAT or ACT. In addition to the old time or classic style essays, they offer essay prompts which are updated for the SAT and other standardized tests.One of the essay prompts that will be found on their website is 'Explaining Social Issues in English'. This essay prompt can be used by students who are taking the ACT. If you want to be prepared for the SAT or ACT, then this essay prompt will help you prepare for the topic and it is important that you think about what you want to say and then write your essay.Another unique essay question and essay prompt is called 'Reality of Mental Health Services and Healthcare'. This essay prompt is commonly used by students who are preparing for the SAT or ACT and will help them understand and figure out how they can improve their grade. They will need to answer quest ions like 'In answering this question, which option would be preferable?' or 'What will be the effect of the proposed services on health services in the area?''Breaking The Ice' is another great essay prompt that you can use. Students will need to analyze what may have happened if they had a problem and answer questions such as, 'If there is a problem, what do you think was going to happen? ', 'What is the point of writing down things that you hear?' or 'What are your thoughts on the way in which you and your peers in the class handle things?'After deciding on your topic, you will also need to write the essay and figure out how you are going to address it. An example of an essay prompt that you may use is, 'Since the section of today is the Social Issues section, you will need to consider the following: What makes this section so controversial? Is it because of what is written in the essay or is it because of what is said during the discussion?'Writing the essay and answering the es say prompt will test your ability to research and write logically. Your teacher will be able to see how well you write and how well you interact with your peers.Writing your essay prompts and essay questions will help you get ready for the tests. The same applies to college essays, which you will need to give an essay for each college.

How to Properly Structure an AP English Literature Essay Prompt

How to Properly Structure an AP English Literature Essay PromptThe best way to get a sense of what is required in an AP English Literature essay is to find out what is acceptable in that category. Most writing websites provide answers to this question, which are informative and will help you put an intelligent view into the essays you select.To give you an idea, let us take an example where your average essay size would be no more than one page. Assuming that is how much an average English Literature essay would require to be written, the number of points in the essay is calculated by multiplying the maximum possible number of words by its average word length in relation to an average writing period of about 3 minutes, since this is a significant factor in essay writing.Essay prompts and sample responses can help you understand what you should look for in an AP English Literature essay prompt. They usually have answers to the following questions: what is the purpose of the essay? How to create a good essay?Most writing sites, e-book and e-zine publishers, AP literature authors, and writing teachers may provide sample essays to help you understand how to structure a good essay. By reading through a number of these samples, you will gain a better idea about how to present your ideas in the best possible manner.The essay prompts and sample responses also supply helpful information on what the possible topics in your AP English Literature essay might be. This knowledge will make it easier for you to choose the appropriate topic in order to explain to the reader why you would like to read your piece and to invite their attention.Reading the AP English Literature paper can be fun but must be done in the right manner so that it does not turn into a stressful ordeal. Sometimes this can lead to the essay getting lost in the mass of other essays and may not receive the attention it needs from the readers.Apart from thinking of the right answer to a question in the essay, remember to avoid stating the obvious and staying away from using abbreviations when describing your thoughts and ideas. Let the essay communicate what it wants to with an interesting and engaging style.

Yellow by Coldplay free essay sample

Coldplay’s â€Å"Yellow† is a debut masterpiece, tugging at its listeners heartstrings with it’s uniquely tuned acoustics and Chris Martin’s heartfelt symphonic voice. The rock ballad has been widely interpreted in many ways, the songs lyrics â€Å"they were all yellow†bringing up a book of speculations on the meaning. Ironically, Chris Martin, singer and songwriter of Coldplay stated that he hadn’t intended a meaning during the spontaneous creation of the hit song. After observing the night sky with his band at a studio in Wales, the tune for â€Å"Yellow† emerged from his guitar along with the opening lyrics. Excitedly Chris played the opening bit to his bandmembers, when the lyrics â€Å"and they were all yellow† came about. Chris admits that he didn’t know exactly what it meant, but he states that it was â€Å"a feeling more than a meaning.† Despite the lack of a definite meaning, fans interpret the feeling of this captivating melody in distinct ways. We will write a custom essay sample on Yellow by Coldplay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A popular theory speculates the song is about self-image and depression, expressing someone’s attempt to bring happiness to another’s lack of â€Å"yellow†, a color which typically signifies cheerful things. Similarly, others theorize that song is describing unconditional love, quoting the song’s heart wrenching line â€Å"For you I’d bleed myself dry.† Along with these speculations, the song’s use of â€Å"Yellow† gives way to interpretations regarding effects of disease as it describes â€Å"Your skin, your skin and bones,† referring to the discoloration of illness. While the song initially had no specific meaning, it is because of this that it should be regarded as a masterpiece. Art, whether it be a painting or a lyric, is a message only read by the eye of the beholder, and by no doubt Coldplay’s â€Å"Yellow† makes the cut.

Critical Review of the pathogenicity of measles, the symptoms associated with the infection and how to prevent the potentially fatal disease. The WritePass Journal

Critical Review of the pathogenicity of measles, the symptoms associated with the infection and how to prevent the potentially fatal disease. Introduction Critical Review of the pathogenicity of measles, the symptoms associated with the infection and how to prevent the potentially fatal disease. IntroductionInfection and Spread  SymptomsVaccinesConclusionRelated Introduction Measles is a contagious human disease that mainly affects children. The measles virus (MV) that causes this systemic infection is a single stranded ribonucleic acid virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus in the Paramyxovirus family.(2,3) As transmission is via air droplets, initiation of the infection occurs in the respiratory tract, and spreads to other organs. MV affects the immune system leading to a prolonged state of immune suppression which can result in several complications involving the respiratory tract and the brain e.g. encephalitis.   Immunisation using a live attenuated vaccine is the main preventative of the infection.   In 2000, the cases of infection of measles in Europe was rare due to vaccination, however in 2008 there was a total of 7,822 (5) with Switzerland having the highest incidence rate in Europe. (6) Measles are increasing in Ireland, with 320 cases reported within 8 months in 2009. (7) The objective of this assignment it to review the pathogenicity of measles, the symptoms associated with the infection and how to prevent this infectious and potentially fatal disease. Infection and Spread Infection is initiated in the respiratory tract. (8) The virus can then spread to the local secondary lymphoid tissues via dendritic cells of the lungs or the alveolar macrophages. (8) From here it can travel to the peripheral blood and spread via epithelial and endothelial cells to multiple organs. Research has suggested that in the later stages of the infection, the virus infects the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract facilitating in the spread of the virus. (9)   But how does the virus invade its host? MV is a non – segmented negative sense strand enveloped RNA virus that encodes 8 proteins: 6 structural proteins and 2 non-structural proteins. (8) The first 3 structural proteins are combined within the RNA. The (N) nucleoprotein protects the genomic RNA by forming the ribonucleocapsid. The phosphoprotein (P) and large polymerase protein (L) are involved in viral replication. (4, 8) The non- structural proteins C and V are responsible for the regulation of viral infection by interacting with cellular proteins. (11) The F and H glycoproteins found on the surface of the virus envelope, are responsible for the initiation of infection to susceptible host cells. These transmembrane proteins allow the virus to fuse with the host cell, penetration of the virus into the host cell and haemolysis. (4) The F protein facilitates the spread of the virus from one cell to the other by inducing cell fusion. (4) Transcription occurs within the cell to create more negative sense RNA for assembly of new budding viruses (see figure 1). (10) The matrix M protein is a non-glycosylated protein found in the inner lipid bilayer of the envelope. Its function is to connect the ribonucleoprotein complex to the envelope glycoproteins during viral assembly. (8) The H protein of the virus surface is responsible for receptor binding. CD46 was the first identified receptor for MV and is present on all nucleated cells. (8)   It was later discovered that the signalling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) also known as CD150 has also been identified as receptor for MV. (3, 8) In fact the receptor binding of CD46 seems to be limited to attenuated vaccine strains rather than the wild type which seems to have better affinity for the CD 150 receptor. CD150 is expressed on many immune cells including lymphocytes, dendritic cells and macrophages and is a member of the CD2 subset of the Ig superfamily. (3, 8) The structure of H protein of MV is well documented consisting of a globular head group composed of 6 anti-parallel B sheets. These are stabilised by two intra- monomeric disulphide bonds and partially covered with N-linked carbohydrates. (12) The binding regions for CD 46 and CD 150 (SLAM) are found adjacent to one another. (3) It has been widely documented that CD150 is the initial receptor targeted by the H protein of the virus but little is known on the receptors involved in the infection of epithelial cells as these cells do not express CD150. (3)   Tahara et al have resulted that â€Å"MV has the ability to infect both polarised epithelial and immune cells using distinctive receptor – binding sites on the H protein†. (3) His study used a CD150 negative human lung adenocarcinoma cell line (NCI-H358) to infect with the MV. The presence of the H protein was evident using monoclonal antibodies and suggesting that the H protein must have been using a different receptor binding site to infect the cells. (3) The pathogenesis of MV, initiates an immune response. It triggers a cell-mediated immune response which involves the activation of TH1 and release of interferon ÃŽ ± and interleukin 2 (IL-2). (13) In the later part of the infection an antibody- mediated response provides long term protection against future infections. TH2 lymphocytes are produced as well as IL-4 which favours the induction of a humoral response which is important for long life protection against re-infection. (8, 13) However MV has the ability to dominate the immune system and use it to its advantage. The suppression of the immune system results in secondary bacterial and viral infection which attributes to the number of fatalities associated with Measles infection. Moss et al suggested that there are many mechanisms that develop to immune suppression following a MV infection. (14) These include: Lymphocyte Apoptosis Impaired Lymphoproliferation Immunomodulatory Cytokines (Increased IL-10 and IL-4) IL-12 down regulation Impaired Antigen Presentation of Dendritic cells One of the clinical manifestations of MV is lymphopenia. This may be due to the reduction of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. Increased surface expression of Fas (CD95) during acute measles suggests that unaffected T lymphocytes undergo apoptosis. (14) Abnormalities in the lymphocyte function are found during and after MV infection. The virus inhibits IL-2 dependent T lymphocyte survival and proliferation. This is in response to an impaired protein kinase B activation caused by the H and F proteins of the virus. (14) In the acute phase of infection a T helper Type 1 (TH1) response is induced which shifts to T helper type 2 (TH2) in the later stage of infection which accounts for viral clearance and development of antibodies respectively. (8) The increased production of cytokines IL-10 and IL-4 in the TH2 response may be another mechanism for viral induced immunosuppression. IL-10 is an immunosuppressive cytokine which down-regulates the synthesis of cytokines and suppresses T cell proliferation and macrophage activation. (15) This prevents macrophage activation and TH 1 response to new infections. (8) As previously mentioned CD 46 is found on many immune cells including monocytes. As a result IL-12 produced by monocytes is downregulated. (16) IL-12 is essential for TH1 immune response. (15) The reduction in production of IL-12 favours TH2 and suppresses TH1 immunity. (17) Dendritic cells play a critical role in the presentation of antigen to naà ¯ve T lymphocytes. MV infection promotes maturation of dendritic cells but also alters its function (18) and mediates Fas induced apoptosis. It is now established that the non-structural protein C and V produced by the P gene plays a role in immunosuppression by interfering with interferon ÃŽ ±/ÃŽ ² signalling pathways. (8)   These proteins of the MV inhibits phosphorylation of STAT 1 and STAT 2 which are transcription factors involved in the Interferon pathway. (14)   Symptoms Clinical symptoms associated with measles include a fever and rash but a cough, coryza or conjunctivitis can also be seen. (9) It is after 10-14 days of infection that this characteristic rash is present and seems to be due to the individuals’ immune response to the virus. (8) The rash usually begins on the face and travels down to the extremities and can last for about 5 days before disappearing (4) Two thirds of patients show a white-marked enanthema on the buccal mucosa known as Koplik’s spot. (2) Koplik spots were first identified by Koplik in 1896 and are the pathognomonic of measles. (4, 5) Generally the resolution of the rash and fever begins after 7 to 10 days however the cough may persist for longer. (4) In many cases complication can occur resulting in infections of the respiratory tract and brain. Pneumonia accompanying measles may be due to the MV or a secondary bacterial infection. (4) 60% of infants infected with measles, can die from pneumonia while older children (10 -14 years) death is associated with acute encephalitis. (4) It seems that viral infection of the CNS is a common feature of measles but only a proportion of patients will present with clinical symptoms. Mild forms of measles have been observed due to passive immunity to the virus. Infants who have passively acquired antibodies to MV from the mother will present with some of the symptoms but depends on the degree of passive immunity that is achieved. (4) A study in China determined that mothers produced low levels of antibodies due to vaccination rather than natural infection. The outcome is reduced protection to the infant which can result in measles infection before the age of receiving a vaccine. (19) Atypical measles is associated with patients who received a vaccine using a killed MV rather than live attenuated vaccine and subsequently was exposed to the wild-type measles virus. Patients present with a low or undetectable titre which drastically rises after a few days. (4) As the symptoms may vary to classic measles, it can be misdiagnosed. Atypical measles is more severe than classic measles. Research has shown that this may be due to the fact that the killed vaccine lacks the antigen to stimulate immune response by preventing the virus entering the cells. (4) It has been shown that the killed vaccine does not produces antibodies to the F proteins which facilitate cell entry and spread of the virus. Immunocompromised patients present with severe measles due to their deficient cellular immunity. Secondary infections are often seen including pneumonia and encephalitis resembling SSPE.   Malnourished children especially in the developing world can suffer from severe measles. This may be due to intense exposure due to crowding or the inability to produce a cell-mediated response due to malnutrition. (4) Measles is regarded as an infection of childhood however adults do get infected and usually develop a severe form which can have complications. During pregnancy, an infected mother is not known to cause co-genital abnormalities to the foetus but may cause abortion or preterm delivery. (4) Vaccines The use of vaccines is the main preventative of Measles. The development of the first measles vaccine was in the 1960s. (20) Immunisation began with a inactivated (killed) vaccine, but resulted in short term protection and undeveloped immune system. (20) Immunisation with a live-attenuated vaccine can be administered as a monovaccine or in combination with mumps and rubella (MMR) or mumps, rubella and varicella virus (MMRV). (2) It is derived from a wild type of the virus known as Edmonston and processed through chicken cells. (8) In 1985, the measles virus was first introduced in Ireland, with the combination vaccine (MMR) emerging in 1988. (7) When the vaccine was first introduced in Ireland 9,903 cases of measles were reported. This dropped to 201 cases in 1987. (7) A two dose vaccine is essential for long lasting protection to the virus. (21) There are occasions when passive immunisation is required using immunoglobulin which include immunocompromised patients such as HIV positive patients. (4) Successful vaccination against infectious diseases depends on the vaccines ability to induce a protective response. Successful vaccination is dependent on the individuals’ human leukocyte antigen (HLA) haplotype which regulates the immune response. (22) There are two types of HLA proteins. The first, Class I consists of A,B and C alleles.   These bind to CD8+ T lymphocytes. (23) Class II DR,DQ and DP alleles attach and present peptides to CD4+ T lymphocytes. (23) The measles vaccine results in an iatrogenic attenuated measles infection. As mentioned previously, the C46 molecule serves as the receptor for the H protein of MV where it is broken down and presented to the immune system by the HLA system. (22) Studies have shown certain HLA alleles may impact differently on the responsiveness to the measles virus.   (22) For successful herd immunity to measles, most of the population needs to be immunised. However fears of the association of the MMR vaccine and autism have stopped parents from vaccinating their children. There is no scientific evidence to suggest any link with autism. (24) Research has suggested that Vitamin A supplementation may help prevent Measles infection in infants prior to vaccination. (25) Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis. (SSPE) One of the persistent secondary infections of MV is subacute sclerosis panencephalitis (SSPE) which causes demyelination of the central nervous system (CNS). (13) SSPE cannot occur without the presence of a direct measles and is found to be more prevalent in males than in females. (26) Research has shown that the earlier a patient is infected with MV the greater the risk of complications such as SSPE can occur. This is due to an immature immune system. (13) Conclusion The MV invades the neurons using the CD46 receptor and using its F protein. (13) There have been studies to suggest that another receptor CD9 aids entry into the cell. Once inside the cell the virus changes the machinery of the cells to avoid an immune response. It undergoes mutations of its own proteins to go unrecognised and reproduces within the neurons. (13) The virus can live as a â€Å"parasite† within the neurons for years. Finally it will damage the cell to an extent that apoptosis will occur and the immune system is triggered. Onset of SSPE is usually 6 years after infection and clinical symptoms present as intellectual deterioration and behaviour abnormalities.   Final stages include seizures, focal paralysis and death with akinetic mutism. (13) There is no cure for this fatal disease only a preventative. Other fears related to the vaccine were that it may cause SSPE however there is no evidence to back this case.